Optimism
For the Radiohead song, see "Optimistic". "Positive thinking" redirects here. For songs of that
Berlin Wall Monument (West view) – the west side of the Wall is covered with graffiti that reflects the hope and optimism post-1989
Optimism is a mental attitude or world view. A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water at the halfway point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full and the pessimist sees the glass as half empty.
The term is originally derived from the Latin optimum, meaning "best". Being optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, is defined as expecting the best possible outcome from any given situation. This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. It thus reflects a belief that future conditions will unfold as optimal.[1]
Theories of optimism include dispositional models, and models of explanatory style. Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both theoretical systems, such as various forms of the Life Orientation Te
title, see Positive Thinking
st, for the original definition of optimism, or the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style.
Variation in optimism and pessimism is somewhat heritable[2] and reflects biological trait systems to some degree.It is also influenced by environmental factors, including family environment,] with some suggesting it can be learned.[4] It has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a hereditary trait because it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that are mostly heritable, like intelligence, temperament and alcoholism.[5] Optimism may also be linked to health.[6]
Dispositional Optimism
Researchers operationalize the term differently depending on their research. As with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test (LOT). These scales were designed by Scheier and Carver (1985) [7] and consist of eight content items: Four optimistic items (e.g. "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four pessimistic items (e.g. "If something can go wrong for me, it will")
Origins
As with all psychological traits, differences in optimism and in pessimism are heritable.[2] It has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a hereditary trait because it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that are mostly heritable, like intelligence, temperament and alcoholism.[5]
Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that optimism and pessimism biases are biological traits rooted in systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively.[3]
Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including family environment,[2] with some suggesting it can be learned
Explanatory style
Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style theory suggests that optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways in which people explain events, ie. that attributions cause these dispositions[citation needed]. Measures of attributions style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explainations generaalize: whether they are global versus specific. In addition, the measures distinguish attributions for positive and for negative events. Optimistic justifications toward negative experiences are attributed to factors outside the self (external), are not likely to occur consistently (unstable), and are limited specific life domains (specific). Positive experiences would be optimistically labeled as the opposite: internal, stable, global.[8]
There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style.[9] Others argue that explanatory style is not be interchangeable with optimism.[10][11]
It is generally thought that they should not be used interchangeably as dispositional optimism and explanatory style are only marginally correlated. More research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts
Philosophical optimism
Philosophically, a view in which situations and events are interpreted as being (optimized) or "the best possible", so that in some way that may not be fully comprehended the present moment is in an optimum state is referred to as panglossian-ism. This leads to a state of mind in which everything is viewed as being "as it should be", and that the future will be as well.[citation needed] This view that all of nature - past, present and future - operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as pessimism, idealism and realism.
Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds, or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics, which Voltaire famously mocked in his satirical novel Candide. The philosophical pessimism of William Godwin demonstrated perhaps even more optimism than Leibniz. He hoped that society would eventually reach the state where calm reason would replace all violence and force, that mind could eventually make matter subservient to it, and that intelligence could discover the secret of immortality.
Panglossianism
The term "panglossianism" describes baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of Pangloss from Voltaire's Candide, which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better.
The panglossian paradigm is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin to refer to the notion that everything has specifically adapted to suit specific purposes. Instead, they argue, accidents and exaptation (the use of old features for new purposes) play an important role in the process of evolution. Some other scientists however argue the implication that many (or most) adaptionists are panglossians is a straw man.
Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time Michael Shermer relates Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire's character Pangloss to show how clever people deceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology of scholars and business men who give up their careers in their pursuit to broadcast their paranormal beliefs. In his last chapter, added to the revised version, Shermer explains that "smart people" can be more susceptible to believing in weird things.
Optimalism
Optimalism, as defined by Nicholas Rescher, holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.[12] While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also doesn't require one, and is compatible with atheism.[13] The positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar uses optimalism to mean willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.[14] Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.[15] Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failure again.[16] This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity.[17] As an alternative to negative perfectionism, Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while the trend of activity will tend towards the positive it is not necessary to always succeed while striving to attain goals. This basis in reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.[14]
Optimalists accept failures and also learn from them, which encourages further pursuit of achievement.[16] Dr. Tal Ben-Shahar believes that Optimalists and Perfectionists show distinct different motives. Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to consistently prove themselves worthy.
ليست هناك تعليقات:
إرسال تعليق